Extras

What is missing in many textbooks is a practicable set of definitions which help to distinguish information from data, etc. but in a systematic (orthotaxic) way. Each of the orthotaxa listed below, is called a 'phorm', they are correct by definition, ie axiomatically. These phorms are part of a hierarchythemselves
(a) numbers ::= patterns of observations (counting/ measuring things) (usually indexed in a list of things)
(b) data ::= numbers about numbers, or metanumbers (usually tabulated with x-number by y-number)
(c) information ::= data about data, or metadata (hence the *i* symbol is used to label file metadata). To be consistent, we would expect the information's 'native' data structure to be the 'memory' matrix := {data X data} := table X table. Information is needed by actors to make decisions.
(d) knowledge ::= information about information, or metainformation. (the phorm of knowledge is {memory X memory}. This segues neatly with the commonsense view that knowledge is a shared set of facts/ commonly agreed upon body of evidence. One person can have a memory of a situation, but that memory only achieves knowledge status when it is shared with others in a group, allowing personal variations to cancel each other out.
(e) intelligence ::= knowledge about knowledge, or metaknowledge. (By a similar analogy to the knowledge comment, if knowledge is the union of two people's memories, intelligence is the knowledge that one group has about the knowledge of another group. The groups could be nations at war, hence the term 'intelligence' is used as a synonym for the espionage. Intelligence is needed to decide whether to fight or flee, wage a winnable war or settle for peace
(f) wisdom ::= intelligence about intelligence, or metaintelligence. When the US has intelligence about the USSR, it is also likely that the USSR has the same or similar level of intelligence about the US. This gave the two-actor scenario ( battlefield) the necessary level of wisdom, and nuclear war was avoided.